Immigrants’ experiences pre-, during-, and post-migration may have long-term personal and community-wide effects. Many immigrants are resilient, able to cope with the stress of traumatic experiences, and live without significant mental or physical health consequences (Ortiz and Sibinga 2017). Others may have fewer resources for coping with the numerous and often-prolonged stressful situations associated with migration and may experience toxic stress—a condition in which a person endures extremely high levels of stress for a continued period of time. Toxic stress may lead to depression and anxiety, which may affect a student’s performance in school and their physical health.
Some immigrants experience posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). PTSD is a psychiatric diagnosis for people who have experienced or witnessed a traumatic event and then experience intense emotional and physical reactions when reminded of the event (American Psychiatric Association 2013). Migrants—including children—who are housed in U.S. detention facilities are at increased risk of anxiety, depression, and PTSD (Human Rights Watch 2015; Li et al. 2016) Symptoms of anxiety, depression, and PTSD in adult migrants often improve upon release from detention, while symptoms deteriorate in those who remain in detention (Keller et al. 2003).
One study of US-born Latinx children between the ages of 6 to 12 years old found that those who had at least one undocumented parent at risk of detention and deportation experienced significantly higher rates of PTSD symptoms than those whose parents were not at risk (cite Rojas Flores). Children of detained and deported parents also experience higher rates of PTSD symptoms compared to children whose parents have a green card (legal permanent residents) or who are undocumented but have no contact with immigration enforcement (Human Rights Watch 2015). Another study found that children who have experienced family separation, or who are at risk of family separation, demonstrate symptoms such as depression, angry outbursts, and increased vigilance (Rubio-Hernandez and Ayón 2016).
Many of these symptoms of PTSD can be seen in the chart below. Symptoms may differ depending on the child’s current age, the age in which they migrated, and their specific experiences.
SIGNS OF PTSD IN CHILDREN CHART HERE
Additionally, immigrants in the United States experience discrimination based on their race and ethnicity. The effects of discrimination are shown to increase distress amongst refugees and immigrants. Sangalang et al. (2019) found that immigrants and refugees frequently reported everyday discrimination that ultimately led to poorer mental health along with other negative health consequences. Discrimination against immigrants was not solely based on race/ethnicity but also language biases, for discrimination is often influenced by the current immigration, political, and social discourse (Sangalang et al. 2019). Through racism, criminalization of people of color is used as a tactic to suppress culture and create racial and class divisions. This racial discrimination can become a social stressor leading to feelings of powerlessness, loneliness, and defenselessness (Perreira and Ornelas 2013). These negative feelings of being unwanted and powerless can lead to negative physical and mental health outcomes because Latinx immigrant populations in the U.S. are an economically disadvantaged group.
Children also experience intergenerational trauma, or the passing of trauma between family members and society. In this way, children who are not directly exposed to potentially traumatic situations may experience the trauma of family members or caregivers who share their own stories of traumatic experiences, report an understanding of society that reflects their experiences of trauma, or exhibit symptoms of PTSD or toxic stress (DeAngelis 2019:43).
This also happens on a community-wide level; communities that have experienced trauma often alter their behavior to reflect their experiences. For example, a community’s distrust of law enforcement or resistance to governmental figures may reflect previous trauma inflicted upon members of the community perpetrated by authority figures. Symptoms of this type of trauma may include headaches, disrupted sleep, poor memory function, difficulty concentrating, difficulty socializing, and loss of trust (Ramos 2013:16). These symptoms may increase an individual’s feelings of isolation, which may be intensified after migrating from one’s country of origin (Blanco 2016: 193).